Discourse analysis

Answer

  1. Test 1: The underlined elements in the following extract, "As we noted above, a cell is the smallest compartment is the smallest living organisms,” is added to justify the speaker's adherence to the maxim of relevance.
    Correct Answer: a. adherence to the maxim of relevance
    Explanation: The maxim of relevance suggests that contributions to a conversation should be pertinent to the topic at hand. The speaker's addition justifies their statement by providing relevant information about cells, aligning with this maxim.
  2. Test 2: Which of the given statements can explain the anomaly in the following utterance: Ali to Ahmed (who is known for his hatred of cats): "I promise to bring you a cat."?
    Correct Answer: b. It is an infelicitous utterance.
    Explanation: An infelicitous utterance occurs when the context makes the statement inappropriate or nonsensical, as in this case where Ahmed's known dislike for cats contradicts Ali's promise.
  3. Test 3: Texts must have a certain structure which depends on factors beyond the scope of a sentential structure. These factors which tie and connect sentences within a text are usually described as cohesive ties.
    Correct Answer: b. cohesive ties
    Explanation: Cohesive ties refer to linguistic devices that connect sentences and ensure coherence in discourse, facilitating understanding across larger texts.
  4. Test 4: The following interaction between "A" and "B": A: Are you going to Mashed tomorrow? B: The pilots are on Strike. does not form a text.
    Correct Answer: a. does not form a text
    Explanation: This response is irrelevant to the question asked, indicating a lack of coherence necessary for forming a cohesive text.
  5. Test 5: "If Socrates is a man, he is mortal. Socrates is a man. Then Socrates is mortal." This kind of logical deduction is called inference.
    Correct Answer: d. inference
    Explanation: Inference refers to drawing conclusions based on premises; here, it illustrates deductive reasoning where one conclusion follows logically from the premises.
  6. Test 6: The sentence, "The cat appreciated my honesty," is unacceptable in English because proper use of word categories has not been fully taken into consideration.
    Correct Answer: b. proper use of word categories
    Explanation: This sentence misuses categories as it anthropomorphizes the cat, attributing human-like qualities that do not align with typical language use regarding animals.
  7. Test 7: The sentence "Mary promised to be on time," is a(n) illocutionary utterance.
    Correct Answer: b. illocutionary utterance
    Explanation: An illocutionary utterance conveys an intention or commitment by the speaker, as seen in Mary's promise.
  8. Test 8: Which of the following statements is NOT acceptable according to modern linguistic theories?
    Correct Answer: d. the problem of implicatures resembles the problem of how hearers arrive at the indirect illocutions of utterances.
    Explanation: This statement inaccurately conflates two distinct areas of study; implicature deals with implied meaning while indirect illocutions concern how intentions are expressed.
  9. Test 9: "Can you pass the butter, please" is an example of an indirect speech act.
    Correct Answer: a. an indirect speech act
    Explanation: This sentence requests action indirectly rather than stating it outright, illustrating how speech acts can convey different meanings beyond their literal interpretation.
  10. Test 10: Which of the following is a commissive act?
    Correct Answer: d. Undertaking
    Explanation: Commissive acts involve commitments made by speakers; undertaking signifies an intention or promise to perform an action.
  11. Test 11: The verbs "persuade" and "appoint" are illocutionary and performative, respectively.
    Correct Answer: b. illocutionary and performative
    Explanation: "Persuade" functions as an illocutionary verb indicating intention behind an utterance, while "appoint" directly performs an action through speech.
  12. Test 12: An inference is any conclusion that one is entitled to draw from an utterance on the basis of all extralinguistic as well as linguistic information available.
    Correct Answer: b. an utterance on the basis of all extralinguistic as well as linguistic information available
    Explanation: This definition captures how inferences incorporate both linguistic context and external situational factors.
  13. Test 13: Which of the following felicity conditions is actually correct for successfully performing an illocutionary act of "apologizing"?
    Correct Answer: a. The speaker must be responsible for the thing apologized for.
    Explanation: For an apology to be meaningful, accountability for the action being apologized for must exist.
  14. Test 14: One of Grice's cooperative principles is "Do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence." This principle is called maxim of quality.
    Correct Answer: d. quality
    Explanation: The maxim of quality emphasizes truthfulness in communication, requiring speakers not to assert falsehoods or lack sufficient evidence.
  15. Test 15: In the following sentence, "John gave Mary a present yesterday," the "theme" is a present.
    Correct Answer: a. a present
    Explanation: In discourse analysis, 'theme' refers to what is being discussed or focused on; here, 'a present' serves that role.
  16. Test 16 Discourse analysis is the study of how language users make sense of what others say.
    Correct Answer b.: how language users make sense of what others say
    Explanation Discourse analysis examines how language conveys meaning and how users interpret communicative acts within context.
  17. Ali said to Mohammed, "I wish somebody would fetch me a glass of water." Mohammed fetched him a glass of water. The above sentence represents a(n) ...
    Correct Answer: b. indirect speech act
    Explanation: This interaction illustrates an indirect speech act because Ali's statement expresses a desire rather than a direct request. Mohammed's action of fetching water indicates he understood the implied request behind Ali's wish.
  18.  18. The underlined element in the following extract: "As we noted above, a cell is the smallest compartment of the living organization," ...
    Correct Answer: a. is added to justify the speaker's violation of the quantity maxim
    Explanation: The addition in this context serves to clarify or elaborate on a point, which can be seen as a violation of the quantity maxim—where more information is provided than necessary for clarity.
  19.  19. Which of the following sentences does NOT contain a performative verb?
    Correct Answer: d. I try to arrive on time before you leave.
    Explanation: This sentence does not contain a performative verb because "try" does not enact an action through speech; it merely expresses an intention, unlike verbs such as "promise" or "command," which perform an action through their utterance.     
  20. 20. Which of the given statements is a correct characterization of the following interaction between two passengers who are traveling in a train compartment and who have never met before? A: Nice weather, isn't it? B: No, it isn't so good.
    Correct Answer: c. B attends only to the literal reading of A's utterance
    Explanation: B's response indicates that they are focusing solely on the literal meaning of A's comment about the weather, rather than engaging with any implied social nicety or indirect illocutionary intent behind A's statement.     

Answer

  1. Which of the statements can explain the anomaly in the following utterance, “Ali to Ahmad (who is known for his hatred for cats): I promise to bring you a cat”?
    Correct Answer: a. It is an infelicitous utterance.
    Explanation: An infelicitous utterance occurs when the context makes the statement inappropriate or nonsensical. In this case, Ali's promise to bring a cat contradicts Ahmad's known dislike for cats, making the utterance unsuitable.
  2.  22. The sentences: A. Ahmad answered the questions. B. The questions were answered by Ahmad.” are ..........
    Correct Answer: d. identical in terms of their propositional meanings.
    Explanation: Both sentences convey the same basic information—that Ahmad answered the questions—despite being structured differently (active vs passive voice). Their propositional meanings remain identical. 
  3. 23. Mina picked a lot of flowers. She arranged the flowers in a beautiful pot. " In this sentence, there are .......... grammatical and .......... lexical cohesive ties.
    Correct Answer: d. two/two
    Explanation: The grammatical cohesive ties include pronouns (e.g., "she" referring to Mina) and conjunctions (e.g., "and"). The lexical cohesive ties involve repetition of "flowers" and related terms like "arranged," which link the sentences together cohesively. 
  4. 24. The utterance "could you please pass the salt?" uttered at a lunch table is a(n) ........... utterance.
    Correct Answer: c. indirect directive
    Explanation: This utterance functions as an indirect directive because it requests an action (passing the salt) without stating it directly, instead phrasing it as a polite question. 
  5. 25. A speech act is an action ...........
    Correct Answer: b. performed in using the language
    Explanation: A speech act refers to an action that is executed through language; it encompasses various functions like making requests, promises, or declarations simply by speaking. 
  6. 26. "I promise to do whatever I can," is a case of .......... sentences.
    Correct Answer: d. performative
    Explanation: This sentence exemplifies a performative act because it enacts an intention through its utterance—by saying "I promise," the speaker performs the act of promising. 
  7. 27. Which of the following statements is NOT acceptable in linguistics?
    Correct Answer: b. The perlocutionary act performed through an utterance is evident before the utterance is made.
    Explanation: This statement is incorrect because perlocutionary acts (effects on listeners) can only be assessed after an utterance has been made, as they depend on the listener's interpretation and response. 
  8. 28. Coherence exists as a property of ...........
    Correct Answer: c. texts, not of people
    Explanation: Coherence pertains to how well a text holds together logically and meaningfully, independent of individual interpretations or perceptions by people. 
  9. 29. "Can you wait a few minutes more?" "I have been waiting enough.” This conversation is an example of ...........
    Correct Answer: c. phatic talk
    Explanation: This exchange illustrates phatic talk, which serves social purposes rather than conveying substantial information; it's about maintaining social interaction rather than providing direct answers. 
  10. 30. The speaker who produces, "Well, to make a story short . . ." seems to be particularly careful about the Gricean .......... maxim.
    Correct Answer: b. quantity
    Explanation: The maxim of quantity advises speakers to provide neither too much nor too little information; this phrase indicates that the speaker aims to be concise and relevant in their storytelling. Feel free to ask if you need further assistance or additional explanations!

  1. 31. The speaker who produces, "Well, to make a story short . . ." seems to be particularly careful about the Gricean .......... maxim.
    Correct Answer: b. quantity
    Explanation: The maxim of quantity advises speakers to provide the right amount of information—neither too much nor too little. By prefacing a story with "to make a story short," the speaker is signaling their intention to be concise and relevant.

  1.  31. The utterance, "What a nice student!" uttered by a teacher addressing a student who arrives quite late one morning violates the maxim of ..........
    Correct Answer: b. quality
    Explanation: This utterance violates the maxim of quality, which states that one should not say what they believe to be false. The teacher's statement is insincere given the context of the student's lateness, suggesting that it is not a truthful observation. 

  1. 32. Those who speak ambiguously violate the .......... maxim of cooperative principles.
    Correct Answer: a. manner
    Explanation: The maxim of manner emphasizes clarity and orderliness in communication. Speaking ambiguously goes against this principle, as it can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. 

  1. 33. The type of knowledge existing in memory to be activated in due time is referred to as ..........
    Correct Answer: c. schemata
    Explanation: Schemata refer to cognitive structures that help individuals organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge and experiences, allowing for efficient retrieval and application in relevant contexts. 

  1. 34. “Jack had a coke. I had one too.” In the second sentence one .......... to the coke in the first sentence.
    Correct Answer: a. has an anaphoric relation
    Explanation: The pronoun "one" in the second sentence refers back to "a coke" in the first sentence, establishing an anaphoric relation where the latter phrase connects back to the earlier mentioned noun. 

  1. 35. The use of filters, restarts, etc., in an attempt to make repairs in conversations is possible via ........... competence.
    Correct Answer: b. discourse
    Explanation: Discourse competence involves understanding how to manage conversation dynamics, including making repairs and adjustments during interactions through various linguistic strategies. 

  1. 36. Specify which sentence is contradictory due to circumstance.
    Correct Answer: a. Queens are male.
    Explanation: This statement is contradictory because, by definition, queens are female monarchs; thus, stating that queens are male contradicts established meanings and social conventions. 

  1. 37. The assumption that in most conversational exchanges, the participants try to provide relevant sufficient and clear information required by the purpose of the talk in which they are engaged is known in discourse analysis as ........... .
    Correct Answer: d. cooperative principle
    Explanation: The cooperative principle posits that speakers typically work together to ensure effective communication by adhering to conversational maxims that promote clarity and relevance. 

  1. 38. If in answer to the question "Do you have a watch?", the person asked says "Yes, it's a Seiko," we would conclude that s/he has not understood the .......... of our utterance.
    Correct Answer: d. illocutionary force
    Explanation: The illocutionary force refers to the intended meaning behind an utterance; in this case, the question implies a request for confirmation about having a watch rather than details about its brand. 

  1. 39. Using the words "I hereby ..:' is an informal test to see whether a sentence contains a ........... .
    Correct Answer: b. performative verb
    Explanation: The phrase "I hereby" is commonly used in performative utterances where saying something enacts it (e.g., promises or declarations). It serves as an indicator that what follows is intended as an action rather than just information. Feel free to ask if you need further assistance or have more questions!

40. All of the following belong to the maxims of conversation EXCEPT ...........
Correct Answer: c. use body shifts and facial expression
Explanation: The maxims of conversation, as proposed by Grice, include the maxim of relevance (be relevant), the maxim of quantity (provide appropriate information), and the maxim of quality (do not say what you believe to be false). While body language and facial expressions can enhance communication, they are not formalized as part of Grice's conversational maxims. 

41. The following dialog ........... (A: Open the window. B: I'm feeding the baby.)
Correct Answer: b. actually violates the maxim of relation
Explanation: B's response does not relate to A's request to open the window, indicating a lack of relevance in the conversation, thus violating Grice's maxim of relation. 

42. The conventional knowledge structures which exist in memory and are activated, under various circumstances, in the interpretation of what we experience are considered as ..........
Correct Answer: b. schemata
Explanation: Schemata are cognitive structures that help individuals organize and interpret information based on prior knowledge, allowing for efficient processing and retrieval of relevant information. 

43. The fixed phrase which the speakers use to open, maintain, and close conversation are called ......... interference
Correct Answer: b. gambits
Explanation: Gambits are expressions or phrases used to initiate or manage conversational exchanges, helping to maintain dialogue flow. 

44. Implicature means ……….
Correct Answer: a. additional conveyed meaning.
Explanation: Implicature refers to meanings that are implied rather than explicitly stated in a conversation, providing additional context or understanding beyond the literal words. 

45. Which of the following is not a component of conversation?
Correct Answer: d. Connectors
Explanation: While maxims, gambits, and openers are all elements that facilitate conversation, "connectors" is not typically recognized as a formal component in conversational analysis. 

46. Tell me why is called ......... in Halliday’s classification of language functions.
Correct Answer: b. heuristic
Explanation: The heuristic function of language is used for exploring and learning about the world, often characterized by questions like "tell me why." 

47. ‘The black man stole the blue car’ has ………. propositions.
Correct Answer: c. three
Explanation: This sentence contains three propositions: (1) There is a black man, (2) The man stole something, (3) The object stolen is a blue car. 

48. Which one of the following statements can be the viewpoint of a linguist?
Correct Answer: c. The expression of meaning is the chief purpose of language.
Explanation: This statement reflects a fundamental perspective in linguistics regarding the primary function of language as a tool for conveying meaning. 

49. **Which maxim is flouted in the following sentence: "Put the i-c-e-r-e-a-m in the refrigerator". **
Correct Answer: d. relevance
Explanation: The instruction to spell out "ice cream" seems unnecessary and irrelevant if the context already implies understanding; thus, it flouts the maxim of relevance. 

50. **When people are exploring and learning about their surroundings, they use ..... function of language. **
Correct Answer: b. the heuristic or the "tell me why"
Explanation: The heuristic function involves using language to inquire and gain knowledge about one’s environment, often through questioning. 

51. **In the conversation below, the response contains a(n) ...... Reza: Are you going to have your dinner? Ali: I had a sandwich an hour ago. **
Correct Answer: a. implicature
Explanation: Ali's response implies that he does not intend to have dinner because he has already eaten, even though he does not directly state this intention. 

52. **In a normal and natural way of conducting dialogues and conversations, people speak one at a time. In other words, they observe ………. **
Correct Answer: b. turn-taking
Explanation: Turn-taking is a fundamental aspect of conversational structure where speakers alternate turns to maintain coherent dialogue. 

53. **I wish I could see my children before I say 'goodbye' to life. This type of sentence is called .......... **
Correct Answer: b. desiderative
Explanation: A desiderative sentence expresses wishes or desires; here, it conveys a longing to see children before death. 

54. **The supporting maxims of the cooperative principle consist of ........... **
Correct Answer: b. quantity, quality, relation, and manner
Explanation: These four maxims guide effective communication by ensuring that contributions are informative (quantity), truthful (quality), relevant (relation), and clear (manner). 

55. **The "tell me why" or the .......... function is used by people to explore and learn about their surroundings. **
Correct Answer: a. heuristic
Explanation: The heuristic function facilitates inquiry and exploration through questions that seek information about one's environment. 

56. **The idea of "be clear" is expressed in the maxim of ........... **
Correct Answer: d. manner
Explanation: The maxim of manner emphasizes clarity in communication by avoiding ambiguity and obscurity.

 57. **The conventional knowledge structures which exist in memory and are activated under various circumstances in the interpretation of what we experience are called ........... **
Correct Answer: c. schemata
Explanation: Schemata refer to organized frameworks in our memory that help us interpret experiences based on prior knowledge. 

58.** The ties and connections which exist within texts are referred to as ........... **
Correct Answer: d. cohesion
Explanation: Cohesion refers to linguistic elements that link sentences within texts, contributing to overall coherence and unity in discourse. 

**59. The term "implicature" means ........... ***
Correct Answer: a. information not directly stated in the text
Explanation: Implicature involves meanings implied by context rather than explicitly stated; it encompasses additional layers of meaning derived from conversational exchanges. 

**60. If someone says that the sentence, "You left the door open," to someone who has just come into the room (and it is pretty cold outside), it would be concluded that the sentence involves ........... ***
Correct Answer: a. an implicature
Explanation: This utterance implies concern about leaving the door open due to coldness without stating it outright; thus it conveys additional meaning beyond its literal interpretation. 

61. Consider the following conversational fragment, “A: Are you coming to the concert tonight? B: I have got a headache.” From B's answer it can be concluded that the second sentence contains a(n) ...........
Correct Answer: a. implicature
Explanation: B's response implies that because of the headache, they are not coming to the concert, even though this is not explicitly stated. This additional meaning is an example of implicature. 

62. The sentence, "Mary's worst fault is arriving late," consists of .......... propositions.
Correct Answer: d. two
Explanation: The sentence has two propositions: (1) Mary has a fault, and (2) that fault is arriving late.

 63. Discourses are filled with pronouns that are coreferential with other expressions, their ...........
Correct Answer: d. antecedents
Explanation: Antecedents are the expressions that pronouns refer back to in discourse, establishing coherence and clarity in communication. 

64. The term .......... refers to the speaker's communicative intention in producing an utterance.
Correct Answer: c. illocutionary force
Explanation: Illocutionary force describes what a speaker intends to accomplish with their utterance, such as making a request, giving an order, or making a promise. 

65. Verbs such as “promise,” “pronounce,” and “command” are called .......... verbs.
Correct Answer: c. performative
Explanation: Performative verbs enact an action through their utterance; for instance, saying "I promise" performs the act of promising. 

66. Coherence is .......... while cohesion is ...........
Correct Answer: c. semantic; grammatical/lexical
Explanation: Coherence refers to the overall meaning and logical flow of discourse (semantic), while cohesion pertains to the grammatical and lexical links that connect sentences within a text. 

67. The expression "Correct me if I am wrong" indicates an awareness of the .......... maxim.
Correct Answer: d. quality
Explanation: This expression shows that the speaker is aware of the maxim of quality, which emphasizes truthfulness and accuracy in communication. 

68. The conventional knowledge structures which exist in memory and are activated under various circumstances are called ...........
Correct Answer: d. schemata
Explanation: Schemata are cognitive frameworks that help individuals interpret information based on prior experiences and knowledge. 

69. **Discourse analysis is the study of linguistic . . . . . . . . **
Correct Answer: a. rules
Explanation: Discourse analysis examines the rules governing language use in context, focusing on how meaning is constructed in communication. 

70. Which of the following is correct about the cooperative principle?

Correct Answer: All options except d are correct regarding their maxims; however, since only one option can be chosen as correct:
The best choice would be c. Relation: be relevant as it directly states one of Grice's maxims. 

*71. Which of Paul Grice's four maxims is violated in the following conversational exchange? A: Who's that person over there? B: That tree is tall.
Correct Answer: d. relevance
Explanation: B's response does not answer A's question about a person, thus violating the maxim of relevance. 

*72. A speech act is . . . . . .
Correct Answer: a. an utterance serving as a functional unit in communication
Explanation: A speech act refers to any utterance that performs a function in communication, such as making requests or giving commands. *73. The locutionary force is the . . . . . .


Correct Answer: a. basic literal meaning of an utterance
Explanation: Locutionary force refers to the actual words spoken and their literal meaning without considering context or intention.

 *74. Which of the following contains an explicit performative?
Correct Answer: b. I'll take you there tomorrow.
Explanation: This statement explicitly performs an action (the promise to take someone somewhere) through its utterance. 

*75. Which one of the following utterances is NOT a constative?
Correct Answer: d. I promise to help you.
Explanation: A constative statement describes something that can be evaluated as true or false; "I promise" enacts an action rather than describing a state.

 *76. Which of the following contains a commissive speech act?
Correct Answer: d. Stop this right now or I'll call your father.
Explanation: This statement involves a commitment by threatening action (calling someone's father), which characterizes it as a commissive act.

 *77. Which of the following contains a declarative speech act?
Correct Answer: a. We find the defendant guilty (said by the jury in court).
Explanation: This statement constitutes a declaration made by an authority (the jury) that alters the status of the defendant based on their judgment. 

*78. Which one of the following utterances is NOT a directive speech act?
Correct Answer: d. The main entrance is on the right side.
Explanation: This statement provides information rather than issuing a command or request, thus not functioning as a directive speech act. 

79. Which one of the following utterances is NOT an expressive speech act?
Correct Answer: d. Call me tomorrow and maybe we could arrange a program.
Explanation: This statement suggests action rather than expressing feelings or emotions, which characterizes expressive speech acts. 

80.* Which one of the following statements is correct?*
a. Conversational principles are always observed in actual discourse.
b. The participants in a discourse contribute to the pragmatic meaning.
c. For any kind of communication to occur, at least one person is necessary.
d. Utterances that are inappropriate in speech situations are ungrammatical.*Correct Answer: b. The participants in a discourse contribute to the pragmatic meaning.
Explanation: This statement accurately reflects how conversational participants shape meaning through context and interaction; other statements may not always hold true in practice. 

 81. Read the following short conversational exchange. A: Do you feel better this morning? B: Not bad. But my back is still troubling me. Which of the following is NOT necessarily a presupposition shared by both speakers?
Correct Answer: c. A is a doctor
Explanation: While A's question presupposes that B is experiencing some discomfort, it does not imply that A is a doctor; this is not a necessary assumption shared by both speakers. 

82. Coherence is the . . . . . . . . ;
Correct Answer: c. contextually meaningful go-togetherness
Explanation: Coherence refers to how well the ideas in discourse connect logically and meaningfully, contributing to a unified understanding of the text. 

83. Which of the following is NOT necessarily related to implicature?
Correct Answer: a. presupposition
Explanation: While implicature involves implied meanings that go beyond what is explicitly stated, presupposition refers to background assumptions that must be accepted for an utterance to make sense, and they are distinct concepts. 

84. Which of the following sentences contains a vocative?
Correct Answer: d. Would you do an errand for me, Matt?
Explanation: The name "Matt" directly addresses the listener, making it a vocative expression within the sentence. 

85. The functional sentence perspective is a type of linguistic analysis which deals with . . . . . . . .
Correct Answer: a. how information is distributed in sentences
Explanation: This perspective analyzes how different elements of information are organized and emphasized within sentences to convey meaning effectively. 

86. Which of the following terms is NOT used to refer to given-new information?
Correct Answer: c. subject-predicate
Explanation: Subject-predicate structure refers to grammatical components of a sentence rather than concepts of given-new information, which are typically described using terms like theme-rheme or topic-comment. 

87. Another term for connotation is . . . . . . meaning.
Correct Answer: c. emotive
Explanation: Connotation refers to the emotional or associative meanings that words carry beyond their literal definitions, often termed emotive meaning. 

88. **A sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers in which the second one is always a response to the first one is called a/n . . . . . . . . **
Correct Answer: d. adjacency pair
Explanation: An adjacency pair consists of two utterances in conversation where one speaker's response directly follows another's, maintaining relevance and connection. 

89. Which one of the following statements is correct about grounding?

Correct Answer: a. Foregrounded information is often contained in the main clause.
Explanation: Foregrounded information typically appears in main clauses and represents the primary focus of communication, while background information provides context.

 *90. According to Halliday, the instrumental function of language is used by a child to ... ... ... ...
Correct Answer: c. satisfy his material needs
Explanation: The instrumental function focuses on using language to fulfill practical needs and desires, such as requesting food or toys. 

*91. Which of the following utterances contains an example of the regulatory function?
Correct Answer: d. Sit still and keep quiet.
Explanation: This directive clearly aims to control behavior, exemplifying the regulatory function of language. 

*92. Which of the following utterances contains an impersonal construction?
Correct Answer: c. It's getting rather hot in here.
Explanation: This sentence uses "it" as an impersonal subject without specifying who or what "it" refers to, making it an impersonal construction. 

*93. What is the most likely interpretation of the reality principle in the following exchange? Woman: How do you like to travel? Man: I love flying.
Correct Answer: b. The man means traveling by plane.
Explanation: The man's response indicates a preference for flying as his mode of travel, directly linking flying with travel. 

*94. The study of the physical distance between people when they're speaking to each other is ... ... ... ... ...
Correct Answer: a. proxemics
Explanation: Proxemics examines how personal space and physical distance impact communication dynamics between individuals. 

*95. Phatic communion refers to ... ... ... ... ...
Correct Answer: c. things said to establish or maintain social contact
Explanation: Phatic communion encompasses conversational exchanges that serve primarily social functions rather than conveying substantial information. 

*96. The utterance "Theresa’s cousin, who is an excellent athlete, won the race” consists of ... ... ... ... ... underlying proposition(s).

Correct Answer: b. two
Explanation: This utterance contains two underlying propositions: (1) Theresa has a cousin who won the race, and (2) that cousin is an excellent athlete. 

*97. Which of the following is the argument in the above utterance?
Correct Answer: b. Theresa's cousin
Explanation: In this context, "Theresa's cousin" serves as the subject or argument that performs the action (winning) in relation to the proposition. 

*98. Which of the following sentences does NOT contain a redundant element?

Correct Answer: c. I enjoy climbing mountains.*

99.* The following exchange A: What do you know about Mack? B: So what? violates the rule of ... ... ....*

Correct Answer: b. sequencing
Explanation: B's response does not logically follow A's inquiry about Mack, thus violating conversational sequencing norms where responses should relate directly to preceding questions or statements. 

100.* The tenor of discourse refers to ………. *
a. what is being talked about
b. its organization
c. the channel which is used
d. its participants Correct Answer: d. its participants
Explanation: In discourse analysis, tenor refers specifically to who is involved in communication (the participants), while other options pertain to different aspects of discourse structure or content

 101. In discourse, tag is . . . . . . only.
Correct Answer: a. pronouns and auxiliaries used in the inverted form
Explanation: In discourse analysis, a tag refers to a short phrase added to the end of a statement, typically involving pronouns and auxiliary verbs in an inverted form (e.g., "It's nice, isn't it?"). 

102. How many moves exist in the following utterance? "I do agree with you, Jane, but could you please elaborate the issue more?"
Correct Answer: b. three
Explanation: The utterance contains three moves: (1) an agreement ("I do agree with you"), (2) addressing Jane by name, and (3) a request for elaboration. 

103. Which of the following is an example of "Standard" Farsi?
Correct Answer: b. the news as it is heard on the radio
Explanation: Standard Farsi is typically represented in formal contexts such as news broadcasts, which adhere to grammatical norms and vocabulary considered standard. 

104. The readers cannot thoroughly comprehend the message unless they have .......... competence.
Correct Answer: b. pragmatic
Explanation: Pragmatic competence involves understanding context, implied meanings, and social cues necessary for fully grasping a message. 

105. Schema refers to the listener or reader's ...........
Correct Answer: a. background information
Explanation: A schema encompasses the mental frameworks or background knowledge that listeners or readers use to interpret new information. 

106. Which of Paul Grice's four maxims is violated in the following conversational exchange, “A: Who's that person over there? B: A man.”?
Correct Answer: b. quantity
Explanation: B's response provides insufficient information given A's question; it lacks detail that would be expected for clarity and relevance. 

107. The effect of an utterance on a hearer is known as the .......... act.
Correct Answer: a. perlocutionary
Explanation: The perlocutionary act refers to the impact or effect that an utterance has on a listener, including their feelings, thoughts, or actions resulting from what was said. 

108. Some scholars believe that the difference between linguistics and discourse analysis is in that linguistics is after extracting language rules, i.e. .......... whereas discourse analysis is after extracting language regularities, i.e. ...........

Correct Answer: c. language use/ language usage
Explanation: Linguistics often focuses on language rules (language usage), while discourse analysis examines how language is used in context (language use). 

*109. When the speaker is talking about things he is not sure about, he is violating the maxim of ...........
Correct Answer: b. quality
Explanation: The maxim of quality emphasizes truthfulness; discussing uncertain matters violates this principle if the speaker does not have sufficient evidence or certainty. 

*110. The four conversational maxims which are obeyed by speakers for effective communication are called ...........
Correct Answer: b. cooperative principle
Explanation: The cooperative principle encompasses Grice's four maxims (quantity, quality, relation, manner) that guide effective communication.

 *111. According to Halliday, the personal function of language is called “...........”
Correct Answer: a. I want
Explanation: Halliday categorizes functions of language; the personal function expresses individual needs and desires, often framed as "I want." 

*112. The use of selected linguistic elements to hold discourse together and to maintain its comprehensibility is called ...........
Correct Answer: b. cohesion
Explanation: Cohesion refers to linguistic devices (like conjunctions and pronouns) that link sentences and ideas together within a text. 

*113. "Fixed rules to open, maintain and close conversations are called ...........
Correct Answer: a. gambits
Explanation: Gambits are established phrases or strategies used to manage conversational flow effectively. 

*114. The study of how spoken or written sentences relate to each other so that they are coherent and effective is called ...........
Correct Answer: b. discourse analysis
Explanation: Discourse analysis examines how sentences connect meaningfully within larger texts or conversations to ensure coherence. 

*115. Mispronunciations, slips and variations according to situation of language use are due to ...........
Correct Answer: b. performance
Explanation: Performance refers to actual language use in context, which can include errors or variations arising from situational factors.

 *116. The statement, “John does not write poems in the bathroom,” presupposes that John ...........
Correct Answer: b. writes poetry
Explanation: This statement presupposes that John writes poetry at some other time or place since it specifies where he does not write it. 

*117. The sentence, “If you do not stop fishing, I'll call the police,” has a(n) .......... speech act.

Correct Answer: a. directive
Explanation: This sentence issues an order or request for action (to stop fishing), classifying it as a directive speech act. 

118.* In a conversational exchange, suppose a partner tells you, “Oh . . . aren't you going into all the details?” Which conversational maxim do you think has been violated in this case?

Correct Answer: a. Quantity
Explanation: This response suggests that too much detail has been provided beyond what was necessary for clarity or relevance in the conversation.