Language history and change
1. **A technique by which**: d. internal reconstruction
- Explanation: The correct answer is "internal reconstruction", which refers to a linguistic technique that uses evidence from within a single language to reconstruct its earlier stages, unlike the comparative method which compares related languages.
2. **Which of the following**: c. Form vs substance
- Explanation: The correct answer is "Form vs substance", which is one of the Saussurean binary distinctions in linguistics, referring to the distinction between the form of a linguistic sign (the signifier) and its meaning or substance (the signified).
3. **Which one of the following**: b. Diachronic vs synchronic
- Explanation: The correct answer is "Diachronic vs synchronic", which is a distinction that belongs to Saussurean linguistics, where diachronic refers to the study of language change over time, and synchronic refers to the study of language at a particular point in time.
4. **It may be said**: a. Pidgin, Creole
- Explanation: The correct answer is "Pidgin, Creole", where a pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between speakers of different languages, and a creole is a pidgin that has become the native language of a speech community.
5. **To understand a string**: a. parse the string
- Explanation: The correct answer is "parse the string", which means that in order to understand a sequence of recognized words, the machine must first parse the string, or analyze its grammatical structure.
6. **The existence of Spanish**: b. diglossia
- Explanation: The correct answer is "diglossia", which refers to a situation where two distinct varieties of a language, a high variety and a low variety, are used for different social functions within a speech community.
7. **The kind of language**: d. is represented by the use of "swept and dreamt" instead of "sweeped and dreamed"
- Explanation: The correct answer is "is represented by the use of 'swept and dreamt' instead of 'sweeped and dreamed'", which is an example of "internal borrowing", a type of language change where a language borrows from its own resources, such as using the irregular past tense forms instead of the regular ones.
8. **The claim that "we**: a. the Sapir- Whorf
- Explanation: The correct answer is "the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis", which suggests that the language we speak influences the way we perceive and conceptualize the world, supporting the idea that our language shapes our thoughts and worldview.
9. **All of the following**: c. linguistic determinism
- Explanation: The correct answer is "linguistic determinism", which is the least controversial cause of language change among the options provided, as it refers to the idea that language determines thought and behavior, rather than the other way around.
10. **A possible cause of**: d. the increased exposure to various forms of mass communication
- Explanation: The correct answer is "the increased exposure to various forms of mass communication", which can lead to dialect leveling, or the reduction of differences between dialects due to increased contact and communication between speakers of different varieties.
11. **As a cause of**: c. may result from misunderstanding
- Explanation: The correct answer is "may result from misunderstanding", which is how metaanalysis, a type of language change, can occur, where a word or expression is reanalyzed or misunderstood by language users, leading to changes in the language.
12. **A common medium of**: d. lingua-franca
- Explanation: The correct answer is "lingua-franca", which refers to a common language used for communication between people who do not share a native language, enabling them to interact and understand each other.
13. **In most languages, two**: d. diglossia
- Explanation: The correct answer is "diglossia", which is the technical term for the situation where two distinct varieties of a language, a high variety and a low variety, are used for different social functions within a speech community.
14. **Principles of language valid**: a. language universals
- Explanation: The correct answer is "language universals", which refers to features that are essential for the function and/or structure of language and are common to all languages, regardless of their specific characteristics.
15. **The aim of**: d. comparative reconstruction
- Explanation: The correct answer is "comparative reconstruction", which is the procedure of trying to work out the possible original or "proto" forms in the common ancestral language, using the comparative method.
16. **Diachronic linguistics deals with**: b. genetic relationships among languages
- Explanation: The correct answer is "genetic relationships among languages", as diachronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language change and the historical development of languages, including their genetic relationships.
17. **The addition of a**: c. prothesis
- Explanation: The correct answer is "prothesis", which refers to the addition of a sound to the beginning of a word, as a type of language change.
18. **A reversal in the**: d. metathesis
- Explanation: The correct answer is "metathesis", which refers to the reversal in the position of two adjoining sounds, as in the example provided of "hros" becoming "horse".
19. **A means for reconstructing**: a. internal construction
- Explanation: The correct answer is "internal construction", which, unlike the comparative method, is a means for reconstructing language history based on evidence from within a single language.
20. **The language containing the**: a. proto-language
- Explanation: The correct answer is "proto-language", which refers to the reconstructed forms produced by the application of the comparative method, representing the ancestral language from which the related languages descended.
21. **Which of the following**: a. Accent can only be considered as a phonological matter.
- Explanation: The statement "Accent can only be considered as a phonological matter" is not correct, as accent can also involve other linguistic aspects, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation, which are not solely phonological.
22. **A vernacular does NOT**: d. spoken by the elite or the ofFzcial authority of a eountry
- Explanation: The correct answer is that a vernacular does not refer to a language variety when it is spoken by the elite or the official authority of a country, as a vernacular is typically associated with the language variety used by the common people, in contrast to a prestigious or official language.
23. **By definition, dialects are**: a. mutually intelligible forms of one language
- Explanation: The correct answer is that by definition, dialects are mutually intelligible forms of one language, rather than being unsystematic variations, incomprehensible to outsiders, or different from each other only linguistically.
24. **We can classify Gilaki as**: d. a language, a dialect
- Explanation: The correct answer is that we can classify Gilaki as a language and Kermani as a dialect, as Gilaki is considered a distinct language, while Kermani is a dialect of that language.
25. **One factor which reduces**: c. extensive intercommunication
- Explanation: The correct answer is that extensive intercommunication is a factor that reduces dialectal diversity, as increased contact and communication between speakers of different dialects can lead to the leveling or reduction of dialectal differences.
26. **Dialect leveling is the**: a. process through which dialect differences may disappear
- Explanation: The correct answer is that dialect leveling refers to the process through which dialect differences may disappear or become less pronounced, rather than a rapid increase in variation, a measure of variability, or a planned attempt to make dialects easier to comprehend.
27. **The notion of one**: c. a nonlinguistic concept
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the notion of one national "standard" dialect is a nonlinguistic concept, as it is often influenced by sociopolitical and cultural factors, rather than being a purely linguistic concept.
28. **The results of the**: d. speakers' overt manifestation of language
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the results of research in regional dialectology are mainly concerned with the speakers' overt manifestation of language, rather than their underlying knowledge, deep structures, or surface structures.
29. **Which of the following**: d. Every single speaker of a language has an idiolect of his own.
- Explanation: The correct answer is that every single speaker of a language has an idiolect of their own, as an idiolect refers to the unique way an individual uses language, including their pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammatical patterns.
30. **The term ....... refers**: a. acrolect
- Explanation: The term "acrolect" refers to the speech of the educated people of a society, which is considered the prestigious or high variety in a diglossic situation.
31. **The social dialect of**: b. a full linguistic system
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the social dialect of the illiterate people in Tehran, such as the pronunciation of /difar/ instead of /divar/, is a full linguistic system, rather than being sloppy speech, inconsistent, or partially correct.
32. **A pidgin**: a. does not have any native speakers
- Explanation: The correct answer is that a pidgin does not have any native speakers, as it is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between speakers of different languages, rather than being a language with complex grammar or high inflection.
33. **A creole develops when**: b. turns into the first language of a social community
- Explanation: The correct answer is that a creole develops when a pidgin turns into the first language of a social community, becoming the native language of that group.
34. **The specific kind of**: c. register
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the specific kind of language used inside a courtroom is called a register, which refers to a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
35. **The study of language**: b. diachronic linguistics
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the study of language change is referred to as diachronic linguistics, which focuses on the historical development and evolution of languages over time.
36. **The linguistic investigation of**: b. synchronic
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the linguistic investigation of Farsi in the post-revolution period is an example of synchronic linguistics, which examines a language at a particular point in time, rather than tracing its historical development.
37. **Which of the following**: a. linguistic differences between the two sexes speaking the same language
- Explanation: The correct answer is that linguistic differences between the two sexes speaking the same language is within the domain of synchronic linguistics, as it examines language variation at a specific point in time.
38. **An example of lingua**: c. selected to be the medium in a multinational meeting
- Explanation: The correct answer is that an example of a lingua franca is the language selected to be the medium of communication in a multinational meeting, where participants do not share a common native language.
39. **The procedure of trying**: b. comparative reconstruction
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the procedure of trying to work out the possible original forms of a language is called comparative reconstruction, which is a method used in historical linguistics.
40. **Which of the following**: c. Double negative construction was possible.
- Explanation: The correct answer is that in Old English, double negative construction was possible, which is a grammatical feature that is not present in modern Standard English.
41. **An isogloss is**: a. a hypothetical line separating two regions with dialectal differences
- Explanation: The correct answer is that an isogloss is a hypothetical line that separates two regions with distinct dialectal differences, rather than being a condition of one language or two distinct forms of language within a speech community.
42. **Which of the following**: d. Each person has access to one system of word meaning.
- Explanation: The statement "Each person has access to one system of word meaning" is not true about diglossia, as in a diglossic situation, there are two distinct language varieties, each with its own set of vocabulary and meanings.
43. **Farsi is a/n**: c. endoglossic
- Explanation: The correct answer is that Farsi is an endoglossic language in Azerbaijan, Iran, meaning it is a native language within the country, rather than being an exoglossic (foreign) or native language.
44. **Which of the following**: d. Japan
- Explanation: The correct answer is that Japan is the only country among the options that is not bilingual or multilingual, as it is predominantly monolingual, with Japanese as the primary language.
45. **Language planning is essential**: b. there should be a unanimous decision as to which variety of language should be used for official use
- Explanation: The correct answer is that language planning is essential in a country because there should be a unanimous decision as to which variety of language should be used for official use, rather than the other options provided.
46. **Some foreign speakers say**: c. interlingual error
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the case of foreign speakers saying "goed" instead of "went" is called an interlingual error, which refers to errors that arise due to the influence of the learner's native language on the target language.
47. **The process through which**: b. accommodation
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the process through which a person changes their way of speech to make it sound more or less like the speech of the person they are talking to is called accommodation.
48. **The branch of study**: a. speech synthesis
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the branch of study concerned with creating speech electronically is called speech synthesis, which is a subfield of computational linguistics.
49. **Which of the following**: d. autonomic nervous system
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the autonomic nervous system is not related to language, as it is responsible for regulating involuntary bodily functions, while the other areas mentioned (Broca's area, Wernicke's area) are involved in language processing and production.
50. **According to the localization**: b. our linguistic abilities each have identifiable locations in the brain
- Explanation: The correct answer is that according to the localization view, our linguistic abilities each have identifiable locations in the brain, rather than the other options provided.
51. **Which of the following**: a. well-boiled icicle
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the phrase "well-boiled icicle" contains an instance of spoonerism, which is a speech error where the initial sounds of two words are switched.
52. **The pathological condition in**: b. Broca's
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the pathological condition in which a person's speech becomes significantly reduced, slow, and effortful with distorted articulation is referred to as Broca's aphasia.
53. **All infants who do**: c. are predisposed to language regularities at birth
- Explanation: The correct answer is that all infants who do not suffer from any pathological cases are predisposed to language regularities at birth, rather than developing language at the same time, pronouncing the same phonemes, or acquiring language regardless of their surroundings.
54. **Which of the following**: d. aphasia
- Explanation: The correct answer is that aphasia is not always related to the other conditions mentioned (dysphasia, dysfluency, echolalia), as aphasia is a broader term that encompasses various language disorders.
55. **Agrammatism is a kind**: b. using functional words
- Explanation: The correct answer is that in agrammatism, a kind of aphasia, the speaker would have difficulty in using functional words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, and articles, rather than using proper nouns, writing, or reading.
56. **Dichotic listening test**: d. the two ears are not the same in perceiving speech in different people
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the dichotic listening test shows that the two ears are not the same in perceiving speech in different people, rather than the other options provided.
57. **The implication of the**: b. the human brain is most apt to learn a language in childhood
- Explanation: The correct answer is that the implication of the critical period theory is that the human brain is most apt to learn a language in childhood, rather than the other options provided.
58. **Which of the following**: d. Congenitally deaf children do not make cooing and babbling sounds.
- Explanation: The statement "Congenitally deaf children do not make cooing and babbling sounds" is correct, as the ability to hear is necessary for the development of these early vocalizations in language acquisition.
59. **Which of the following**: a. cooing-babbling-telegraphic-holophrastic-two word
- Explanation: The correct sequence of language development stages is cooing, babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and then telegraphic, which is the answer choice "a".
60. A child's two-word - b. may be quite ambiguous and interpretable only contextually
Explanation: Two-word utterances in early language development can be ambiguous and require contextual information to be fully understood.
61. Which one of - b. two-word stage
Explanation: The two-word stage is a common characteristic in both first language (L1) and second language (L2) acquisition.
62. Which of the - b. Language learning is accumulating knowledge of a language consciously.
Explanation: This statement is incorrect. Language learning, unlike language acquisition, involves the conscious accumulation of knowledge about a language.
63. Children' early language - b. lexical morphemes, grammatical morphemes
Explanation: Early language production is characterized by the presence of lexical morphemes (e.g., nouns, verbs) and the absence of grammatical morphemes (e.g., inflections).
64. The . . . . - a. Modistae
Explanation: The Modistae were the first philosophers who proposed that language is universal.
65. The Greek Sophists' - a. finding methods to improve their ability to give rhetorical speeches
Explanation: The Greek Sophists were interested in finding methods to improve their ability to give rhetorical speeches.
66. Analogists held that - c. is based on a regular foundation
Explanation: The Analogists held the view that language is based on a regular foundation, in contrast to the Anomalists who believed that language lacks any kind of systematicity.
67. According to language - c. a lot of the diversity among languages is superficial
Explanation: According to language universals, a lot of the diversity among languages is superficial.
68. Generally speaking, it - d. no human language is better, more complete, etc. than another one
Explanation: Generally speaking, it would be correct to say that no human language is better, more complete, etc. than another one, as all languages are equally complex and capable of expressing the full range of human thought and experience.
69. The study of - b. diachronic
Explanation: The study of language change is referred to as diachronic linguistics, in contrast to synchronic linguistics, which focuses on the study of language at a particular point in time.
70. Which of the - c. Comparative method is a linguistic research technique in which languages are contrasted in order to help language learners.
Explanation: This statement is not true. The comparative method is a linguistic research technique used to compare languages in order to reconstruct their historical development, not to help language learners.
71. The .......... linguistics - a. historical/comparative
Explanation: The historical linguistics is concerned with the comparison of two or more stages of the same language, whereas the comparative linguistics compares two or more languages at the same stage.
72. Comparison of two - c. contrastive analysis
Explanation: Comparison of two languages at phonological, grammatical, lexical, and cultural levels is in the domain of contrastive analysis.
73. Today, .......... - b. contrastive analysis
Explanation: Today, contrastive analysis is considered to be useful to explain learner's errors rather than a predictive procedure for syllabus design.
74. .......... is the - d. Error analysis
Explanation: Error analysis is the systematic investigation of language learner's errors.
75. Which of the - c. I love the book that you gave to Elena.
Explanation: This sentence contains an anaphoric expression, "that", which refers back to the noun "book".
75. Hypercorrection is NOT …….
Answer: d. just present in the speech of a foreigner
Analysis: Hypercorrection occurs when speakers apply rules they believe to be correct too rigidly, often leading to errors. While it can be prevalent in the speech of non-native speakers, it is not exclusive to them.
76. The theory that in the languages of the world certain linguistic elements are more basic, natural, and frequent than others is called . . . . . . .
Answer: d. markedness
Analysis: Markedness refers to the idea that certain linguistic forms are more "natural" or basic than others, influencing how we analyze language structures.
77. Which of the following is NOT related to computational linguistics?
Answer: b. language planning
Analysis: Computational linguistics focuses on the computational aspects of language processing, such as data analysis, speech recognition, and translation, but language planning is a sociolinguistic activity.
78. According to the theory of cultural relativism, . . . . . . .
Answer: a. there are no universal cultural beliefs or values
Analysis: Cultural relativism posits that beliefs and values are culture-specific, denying the existence of universal norms that apply across all cultures.
79. Dependency grammar . . . . . . .
Answer: b. is a grammatical theory in which the verb is considered the main unit
Analysis: Dependency grammar emphasizes the relationships between words, particularly how verbs govern other elements in a sentence.
80. A word has . . . . . relations with the other words which co-occur with it in a sentence and . . . . . . relations with the words that may be substituted for it in the sentence.
Answer: a. syntagmatic - paradigmatic
Analysis: Syntagmatic relations pertain to how words combine in sequences, while paradigmatic relations refer to the substitutability of words within similar contexts.
81. Which of the following is a potential case of suppletion?
Answer: a. say
Analysis: Suppletion occurs when an irregular morphological pattern replaces a root form (e.g., "go" vs. "went"). "Say" does not have an irregular form but "see" (as in "saw") does, making "say" less relevant.
82. Systemic linguistics is a theory which states that language . . . . . . .
Answer: b. should be considered as a resource used for communication and not as a set of rules
Analysis: Systemic linguistics emphasizes the functional nature of language, viewing it as a resource for communication rather than a strict set of syntactic rules.
83. Which of the following ideas violates the complexity of language?
Answer: d. the deficit hypothesis
Analysis: The deficit hypothesis oversimplifies language acquisition and suggests certain groups have inferior language skills, thus not accounting for the complexity and diversity of language.
84. A grapheme always has relationship with . . . . . . .
Answer: d. a sound or a group of sounds
Analysis: A grapheme is the smallest unit of writing and can correspond to both a single sound (phoneme) or a combination of sounds.
85. An error which makes an utterance difficult to comprehend is a . . , . . . . error.
Answer: b. global
Analysis: Global errors affect the overall meaning and structure of sentences, whereas local errors pertain to smaller, more isolated parts.
86. Internalized language (I-language) refers to . . . . . . .
Answer: c. language viewed as an element of the human mind
Analysis: I-language encapsulates the mental representation of linguistic knowledge that individuals possess, distinct from external language use.
87. The term "orthography" does NOT refer to .
Answer: d. any kind of ideographic or syllabic writing
Analysis: Orthography specifically pertains to the system of spelling and writing conventions of a language, not including ideographic or syllabic systems.
88. Which one of the following sentences contains a perseveration error?
Answer: c. The beg was oiling in the pan. (instead of egg was boiling)
Analysis: A perseveration error occurs when a previous word or element is mistakenly repeated or substituted in a different context.
89. Uptake refers to . . . . . . .
Answer: a. the illocutionary force a hearer interprets from an utterance
Analysis: Uptake involves how a listener understands and interprets the intended meaning of a speaker's utterance, reflecting the interaction in communication.
90. According to descriptive linguists, some utterances such as "He never told nobody nothing about it" are . . . . . . .
Answer: d. restricted to members of particular social classes or regions
Analysis: Descriptive linguistics acknowledges that such constructions are part of the linguistic repertoire of specific groups and may not conform to prescriptive norms.
91. Linguists are usually more interested in studying the spoken form of a language than the written form because the former is more ...... .
Answer: b. informative
Analysis: Spoken language provides rich information about natural use, intonation, and context, which may be less apparent in written forms.
92. Generally speaking, it would be correct to say that . . . . . . .
Answer: d. no human language is better, more complete, etc. than another one
Analysis: This reflects the principle of linguistic equality, asserting that all languages are valid and complex in their own right.
93. The study of language change is referred to as .......... linguistics.
Answer: b. diachronic
Analysis: Diachronic linguistics examines how languages evolve over time, in contrast to synchronic linguistics, which studies them at a specific point in time.
94. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
Answer: c. Comparative method is a linguistic research technique in which languages are contrasted in order to help language learners.
Analysis: The comparative method is primarily used for historical linguistics to reconstruct language families, not specifically for aiding language learners.
95. The .......... linguistics is concerned with the comparison of two or more stages of the same language, whereas the .......... linguistics compares two or more languages at the same stage.
Answer: a. historical/comparative
Analysis: Historical linguistics focuses on language evolution, while comparative linguistics compares languages synchronically.
96. Comparison of two languages at phonological, grammatical, lexical and cultural levels is in the domain of ...........
Answer: c. contrastive analysis
Analysis: Contrastive analysis systematically examines differences and similarities between languages across various dimensions.
97. Today, .......... is considered to be useful to explain learner's errors rather than a predictive procedure for syllabus design.
Answer: c. error analysis
Analysis: Error analysis helps identify and explain learners’ mistakes, focusing on understanding and addressing errors rather than merely predicting outcomes.
98. .......... is the systematic investigation of language learner's errors.
Answer: d. Error analysis
Analysis: Error analysis specifically refers to the study of learners' errors to better understand language acquisition processes.
99. Which of the following sentences has an anaphoric expression?
Answer: d. I am sick, which makes me sad.
Analysis: The phrase "which makes me sad" refers back to the preceding clause, making it an example of anaphora.